Post Modernism To Sociological Understanding Sociology Essay

Post Modernism To Sociological Understanding Sociology Essay Important contributions to sociological thinking about postmodernism emerged from several academics, some of whom considered themselves postmodernists and others who did not. This essay will discuss the origins of postmodernism and its views and focus primarily on the works of Jean-Franà §ois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard and poststructuralist Michel Foucault. In addition to this, criticisms of their work and their influences within social theory shall be analysed. Postmodernism developed as a reaction to the inadequacies of the eighteenth century Enlightenment movement which held views about scientific positivism, the search for absolute truth, ultimate meaning and the nature of reality using rationality. Postmodernists are anti-essentialist and argue that an absolute scientific truth has been discredited as truths are multiple and always changing. The belief is that people no longer rely on science. In support of this, Fulcher Scott (2003) argue that in 1962, Thomas Kuhn suggested that science creates its facts instead of providing given facts. He argued that scientists collaborated with other researchers who shared particular concepts and methods in common to bring about factual knowledge; Kuhn claims this tells scientists what to find in experiments and help explain observations that do not match their preconceived ideas. This view was developed further by Lyotard, which shall be discussed in more detail (Haralambos Holborn, 2004). It is argued that the postmodern society is associated with pluralism, difference, uncertainty and cultural relativism as there is a vast choice of interpretations of the world surrounding humans. Moreover, individualism reigns and people find it difficult to form a real identity making them anxious and insecure (Jones et al. 2011, Giddens 2006, Bilton et al.2002, Connolly 2013, Boyne Rattansi, 1990). Therefore, postmodernists stress for the need for local knowledge produced out of particular locations (Macionis Plummer, 2nd edn). Jean- Francois Lyotard  (1995) stated I define postmodern as incredulity toward metanarratives. This incredulity is undoubtedly a product of progress in the sciences. This rejection of metanarratives is related to the postmodernist idea that there is no social theory that can provide absolute sociological knowledge. Meta-narratives which are big stories that seek to find the objective truth about society, provided by the likes of Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx who attempt to explain the social world in its entirety have been abandoned, as suggested by Lyotard. This involves scepticism towards the idea of history moving in the direction of progress, freedom and reason (Beyer 1992, Connolly 2013, Ritzer,). Lyotard uses the concept of language- games. He argues that language is problematic as it does not provide a map for reality. With positivism however, language is considered to be a natural outlet to describe observations but postmodernists reject this notion as there are too many meanings for one word which are in constant flux. Lyotard argues that the Enlightenment brought about scientific denotative games whereby scientific statements are scrutinised by other scientists and rational argument is used to establish whether a statement should be accepted or rejected. The belief is that science can help humans to become more self-conscious. However, Lyotard rejects this view and argues that nowadays statements are judged not by whether they are true or not, but whether they are useful and efficient or not (Connolly 2013, Haralambos Holborn, 2004). On the other hand, Giddens (2006) argues that Jean Baudrillard sees society as characterised by simulations and hyper reality. The creation of simulacra attempt to reproduce reality and hype reality is a description of the social world in which simulations and simulacra become real and predominate. Society is dominated by media, technology and information which have created an empty world. Appignanesi et al. (2004) suggest that Baudrillard argues that this has reversed Marxs theory that economic forces shape society. Instead, society is influenced by a constant flux of meaningless signs and images. Meaning is now created by the flow of images such as in TV programmes, pop music and so forth. Individuals now respond to media images rather than to real people or places. These provide impermanent multiples of reality to consume (Haralambos Holborn, 2004, Kirby 2000, Agger, 1991 and Giddens 2009). Jones et al. (2011) argue that this breakdown between reality and knowledge is part of peo ples knowledge in the postmodern world as suggested by Baudrillard. He calls this the dissolution of life into TV (cited in Giddens, 2006: 115). In addition he states, TV watches us, TV alienates us, TV manipulates us, and TV informs us (Haralambos Holborn, 2004, p. 976). Baudrillard is pessimistic about the future and does not believe in socialism as suggested by Marx. He views the masses as being gradually more passive. Thus, life is led toward nihilism (Ritzer, 2008). In contrast, Lyotard is optimistic about these new changes. Unfortunately, Baudrillards work has been criticised for being highly abstract and relies upon examples to illustrate arguments (Haralambos Holborn, 2004). Alternatively, associated with post structuralism is Michel Foucault who incorporated a variety of theoretical insights, particularly from Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche. Like Nietzsche, he was particularly interested in the relationship between power and knowledge. Foucault pays particular attention to the techniques that are developed from scientific knowledge and how they are used by various institutions to exert power over people via surveillance, enforcement and discipline. His work is known as Foucaults archaeology where he sets about making sense of the familiar by looking into the past. He sees history moving from one system of domination based on knowledge to another. He suggests that there is no history but a multiple, overlapping and interactive series of legitimate vs. excluded histories. One example he suggests is that there are increases in the ability of the sane and their agents such as psychologists to oppress and repress the mad, who initially used to be viewed t o possess a gift (Ritzer 2008, Marsh et al. 2009, Giddens, 2006, Macionis Plummer 2002, Jones et al. 2011, Appignanesi et al. 2004). This means that what counts as true, morally right is relative to a particular time, place and power struggle; truth changes according to whoever is powerful enough to define it (Jones et al. 2011). Foucault developed the concept of discourse by drawing upon the work of Claude Levi-Strauss who argued that language originates in the unconscious human mind. Furthermore, culture is also the creation of the same unconscious thought processes. Culture is therefore like language. Thus there is nothing in social life that is a result of the creation of the imaginative mind. Human beings are not the authors of their life stories as these are written for them in language and in culture which exist independently of individuals. Therefore social reality is defined by structural influences as a system of language external to the actor. This link between thought, language, knowledge and action Foucault summarizes with the phrase discursive practises (Jones et al, 2011). Fulcher and Scott (2003) argue that Foucault and Lyotards works are often linked as they both reject the idea that there are constraining structures in social life and recognise fragmentation and diversity in cultural and social life. Foucaults writings have been influential in furthering research into power and knowledge across the social sciences (Ritzer, 2008). His approach to analysing the relationship between truths, meaning and power has shaped the theoretical and research agendas of the social sciences Jones et al. (2011) (p. 128). Moreover, Agger argued that Foucault has made direct empirical contributions to social sciences where he has studied the discourse/practices of prisons (1977) and sexuality (1978). This research supports his argument. Overall, postmodernism is criticized for being untestable, superficial, fragmented, relativistic, abstract and lacking depth. A consequence of this is that people are unable to make sense of an increasingly complex society. In addition to this, Giddens (1990 cited in Bilton et al. (2002) argues that the postmodernist account of contemporary society is contradictory because Lyotard and Baudrillards arguments are based on uncertainty. Furthermore, Giddens criticises postmodernist approaches for rejecting the notion that humans are creative agents with an active part in shaping their social worlds. The view that an absolute break with past has occurred, as suggested by Baudrillard, has been solidly rejected by most sociologists, as he was unable to identify the point of separation between modernity and postmodernity or provide a clear account of the move into postmodern society. This inadequacy may have led sceptical sociologists like Giddens (1991) and Beck (1999) to go for terms such as late modernity to describe the social changes representative of contemporary society. Other criticisms by Greg Philo and David Miller suggest postmodernisms inability to account for social causation and the implication of factors such as the economy. Instead, the focus was only on surface portrayals of social change and missing the impact of deep social structures and growing inequalities which should not be ignored within sociology. Moreover, Philo and Miller argue that Baudrillard is said to pretend as though media images have no connection with reality at all. In their research, they found that media audiences are well aware of the difference between reality and TV images. Philo and Miller abandon the postmodern impression that people are free to consume, do as they wish and recreate identities as they please. They believe that people are still very much inhibited and shaped by structures such as the capitalist economy. Postmodernists ignore that culture is shaped by the capit alist economy (Haralambos Holborn, 2004). Another criticism is brought forward by Jà ¼rgen Habermas who rejects the arguments of postmodernism notion that it is impossible to understand the social world rationally (Kirby, 2000). Nevertheless, the biggest contribution of postmodernism may lie in its methodological approach in denying both the search for absolute truths and an emphasis on finding the foundations of social occurrences. Instead, the postmodern approach suggests that the influence of authority and power need to be analysed in social theory, with the intention of concentrating on the uncovered social conditions of marginalised groups of society (Ritzer, 1997). Additionally, Agger argues that postmodern approaches have been effective critiques of positivism, interrogating taken for granted assumptions about science. However, postmodernism has not produced a concrete version to replace positivist classical theories. In conclusion, Foucault has shown through his studies how knowledge was historically established through his concept of discourses. Baudrillards analysis has been suggested to possibly enhance research in the social sciences on culture and the media (Agger, 1991) and Lyotard has shown how science is just one of the many discourses currently in power to control people.

Grandmother’s Grace in A Good Man is Hard to Find

The things that come to mind having read Flannery O’Connor’s story, A Good Man is Hard to Find are grace, mercy, and the injustice of justice. The story mainly deals with the central character, the grandmother, and how she relates with others.The grandmother is self-centered and liked getting attention, as was evident in the first paragraph of the story when the whole family was set to going to Florida she was still trying to convince them to go to Tennessee instead, where she would like to go to meet her friends. Even though she relented with going to Florida, she made sure she got into the car first so she could hide her pet cat, which she knows her son does not like to bring on journeys.Further, she is seated between the two children, which seem like the grandmother’s ploy so she could get the children’s attention, or at least some of it, by pointing interesting scenery and telling them stories.Later on in the story, it is her selfishness that got the f amily into trouble, telling the children about a house with secret panels where silver is hidden so they would want to see it even though she knew there was no such thing, and after realizing that she was wrong she dared not admit it to anybody and the cat she secretly brought with her caused a ruckus.The grandmother paid attention to detail, and on the extreme, paid tribute to superficialities. She wore such intricate accessories to go with her dress, to make sure that if anything happens the people will know exactly that she was a lady.She pointed to a black kid they passed by, commenting what a lovely painting it would make but not really empathizing with the child’s plight. Perhaps what showed the grandmother’s penchant for superficiality is the difference between how she and June Star talks.The grandmother criticized June Star for being tactless and disrespectful, but June Star all throughout the story spoke her mind out loud, even if it offended other people, whe reas the grandmother engaged in small talks with everybody, in the car, with Uncle Sam and his wife, even with The Misfit.To some extent, the grandmother’s character is likable, in the sense that it aptly portrays the average person, with concerns regarding appearance, norms, and what is politically correct. However, it shows the flaws of being one. And the story deals with this, and the transformation of the grandmother at the last seconds of her life.The grandmother, faced with The Misfit, began paying lip service that The Misfit must be a good man, saying she knows he must come from nice people. The Misfit shares his fragmented story, and we sense that he suffered injustice, and he has broken out of jail to give justice to the injustice done to him. He does not know his crime, but they had papers on him that proves he did commit a crime, and the punishment drove him crazy.The grandmother heard The Misfit, but she was not really listening all this time, as she was more conc erned with telling The Misfit to pray and trying to convince The Misfit and herself that he was a good man. The grandmother’s talk of the good man shows that what she considers good people are people who pray, who call on to Jesus, who are religious so to speak. She asked The Misfit to pray, to change, indirectly to spare her life, and yet she continues to judge him, telling him that he should pray and even offer him money.Yet, all her talk was not lost. When The Misfit confided his confusion, saying that he wished he had been there when Jesus raised the dead so he would know for sure and then he will not be like what he is, the grandmother’s head cleared.And as the grandmother realized this and touched him, telling him, â€Å"Why you're one of my babies. You're one of my own children†, it was like the hand of grace that touched him, because then the grandmother was finally seeing The Misfit as he really is, a man in need of direction, mercy and grace, no differ ent than her or her own family, and in that final breath she understood all that she was saying about Jesus and being good, and at that moment she accepted her death.The Misfit said that she would have been a good woman if there was somebody there to shot her every minute of her life, showing that the grandmother stopped judging people and started accepting them at the face of death. Still, it was a good thing for her to have achieved her own saving grace by understanding what grace meant before she died.   

Obesity As A Body Mass Index ( Bmi ) - 1458 Words

Broadly speaking, overweight and obesity is caused when an energy imbalance between energy consumed and calories expanded takes place. The cause for this energy imbalance is often complex, resulting from the multifactorial interactions between genetics, overeating, slow metabolism, medications, and physiological factors. Obesity can be measured in several ways; the most widely used technique is BMI. Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of size based on a person’s mass and height (NHLBI, 2015). Obesity is defined as having a Body Mass Index (BMI) between 25 kg/m2 and 30kg/m2 or having a body fat percent of 25% in males and 35% in females. Since the 1980’s, obesity worldwide has doubled (World Health Organization, 2014). In 2008, over 1.4†¦show more content†¦The CDC (2008b) reported that biological consequences of childhood obesity include hypertension, osteoarthritis, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gall bladder disease, sleep ap nea, respiratory problems, and some cancers. The obesity epidemic has been described as a â€Å"threatening storm† that may result in reduced life expectancy as early as the first half of this century, with the current generation of children living shorter and less healthy lives than their parents (Olshansky et al., 2005). Children are beginning to exhibit the signs and symptoms of disease processes and illnesses that were once associated only to adults. Such diseases include diabetes, heart disease, vascular disease, and certain cancers. There is a strong correlation between persons with Type II diabetes (formerly known as adult-onset diabetes) and being overweight or obese. 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Sullivan Surname Meaning and Family History

The common Sullivan surname means hawk-eyed or little dark-eyed one, derived from the Irish sà ºildhubhà ¡n, from suil, meaning eye and dubh, meaning black. Sullivan is the 92nd most popular surname in the United States and the third most common surname in Ireland. Surname Origin:  Irish Alternate Surname Spellings:  OSULLIVAN, OSULLIVAN Famous People with the SULLIVAN Surname Arthur Sullivan - 19th century British conductor and composerLouis Sullivan- widely considered Americas first modern architectAnne Sullivan - American teacher  best known for her work with Helen KellerEd Sullivan -  Ã‚  American journalist, producer and TV host; best known for his successful variety program, The Ed Sullivan Show. Where is the SULLIVAN Surname Most Common? The Sullivan surname, according to surname distribution information from  Forebears, is most prevalent in the United States, where it comes in as the 81st most common last name. There are more individuals named Sullivan in Ireland, however, based on percentage of population. It is also fairly common in Australia and Wales. Genealogy Resources for the Surname Sullivan 100 Most Common U.S. Surnames Their Meanings: Smith, Johnson, Williams, Jones, Brown... Are you one of the millions of Americans sporting one of these top 100 common last names from the 2000 census?Sullivan/OSullivan DNA Project: More than 400 members have joined this project for the Sullivan surname (and variants such as OSullivan) to  work together to find their common heritage through DNA testing and sharing of information.SULLIVAN Family Genealogy Forum: This free message board is focused on descendants of Sullivan ancestors around the world. Search the forum for posts about your Sullivan ancestors, or join the forum and post your own queries.  FamilySearch - SULLIVAN  Genealogy: Explore over 4.9 million  results from digitized  historical records and lineage-linked family trees related to the Sullivan surname on this free website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.GeneaNet - Sullivan Records: GeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Sullivan surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries.Ancestry.com: Sullivan Surname: Explore over 11  million digitized records and database entries, including census records, passenger lists, military records, land deeds, probates, wills and other records for the Sullivan  surname on the subscription-based website, Ancestry.com.